Introduction

“The first thing he noticed was that there were no trees, no trees at all, as far as you look in any direction. The land was down upon itself, a land of black loam, but nothing on it...” (1).

While these sentiments might have been uttered by a nineteenth-century homesteader first surveying a sea of prairie grass on the American frontier, they were actually the thoughts and feelings of a man first encountering the Martian landscape—well, “actually” in the sense of being a scene imagined by science fiction writer Ray Bradbury in his seminal work, The Martian Chronicles, a collection of short stories and vignettes that center around the first several manned missions to Mars. The parallels of this work of fiction to the historical settlement of the United States’ “frontiers,” especially the trans-Mississippi West, make a high-interest, high-impact lesson for students in any American history class (2).

A curriculum gains relevance and makes the abstract concrete when it connects to student experiences (3). When Bradbury’s Chronicles was first published in 1950, its chapter headings of dates from January 1999 to October 2026 probably seemed light-years away to its readers—a truly science-fictionalized account of the distant future they would never see. However, with the first of those dates already on our calendars and the last appearing in long-term contracts, students today read this work as more science fact than fiction. The stunning success of the 1997 Mars Pathfinder mission was shared by everyone, as we accessed its data on the Internet and through stories in the media. Americans were captivated by Sojourner’s adventures on the Martian landscape. For students, the “frontier” is no longer a dusty relic of the past; rather, it is a real place in the present, while manned missions to Mars are quite possibly in their future (4).

The Martian Chronicles adds another dimension to frontier history with its parallels to the European settlement of the American continent and to the clash of native and non-native cultures. Students of American history who may be reluctant to engage in a discussion of these issues find in Bradbury’s novel a highly engaging connection to the real frontier of the past by reading about a frontier of the future. The work also provides students with a buffer zone, a safe distance (albeit a shrinking one) from which they can address the frontier issues of today—technological advances, nuclear/biological weapons proliferation, world unrest, and the exhaustion of natural resources—which are the same reasons given in the novel for humankind’s move from Earth to Mars. Although the lesson described here only covers selected chapters of Bradbury’s novel, many of my students have asked permission to keep the book longer in order to read the entire work on their own.

“Thinking outside the box”—or approaching something in entirely new and different ways—is often just the jolt students need to have that “a-ha!” moment, that instant they truly understand something. Approaching a topic from another disciplinary perspective, as in using literature to teach a historical concept, pushes students into higher-level thinking. Analysis of the topic in one discipline can be applied to its analysis in another, followed by a synthesis of elements in common, which then leads to deeper understanding of both (5).

I have used The Martian Chronicles as part of a thematic frontier unit in an eleventh-grade elective that offers a two-hour, team taught interdisciplinary approach to the study of U.S. history and American literature. This course is designed for students of all ability levels and uses the methodologies of both disciplines—English and social studies—to identify major ideas and events of the American experience which have shaped American culture.

Time Frame

This unit takes three weeks (one two-hour period per day) to cover the material.

Objectives

Preparation

This lesson was very successful when my team partner and I taught the course; however, a history teacher working by herself could easily focus on the historical aspects of the above objectives and use The Martian Chronicles to reinforce them. Frontiers are not merely physical edges of open space. In addition to looking at the geographical expansion of United States territory, this unit explores the idea of “frontier,” in terms of cultural, technological, and social change. Critical questions for students to consider (with some answers suggested by The Martian Chronicles) include:

1. What dominant American values existed on the frontier? [Respect for the power and wonder of nature as evidenced by the symbiosis of Native American—and Martian—culture with the natural landscape; the ideal of limitless possibilities in wide-open spaces and the reality of natural limits and cultural clashes.]
2. What dominant American values did pioneers bring to the frontier? [Industriousness; opportunity to advance one’s station in life.]
3. What dominant American values did the frontier shape? [Innovation of European—and Earthling—technology; increased pace of technological advancements.]

Procedure

Whether students read the fiction first, then look at the history, or vice-versa, or look at both simultaneously, is the teacher’s discretion.

I. History

1. Our typical teaching approach to this unit is a six-part chronological study of the following frontiers: the Atlantic Seaboard, the Ohio River Valley, the Central South, the Great Plains, California/Alaska, and Space. Our students begin by reading the chapter “Changes on the Western Frontier” in their history text, The Americans. This overview provides them with historical data in the context of several larger themes, including American dreams, cultural diversity, technological advancements, and economic development.
2. The students then work in small groups to research key historical, geographical, and literary content. They present their findings to the rest of the class in a creative fashion.
3. Throughout the unit, teachers monitor progress with objective testing for specific content information, ending the unit with a comprehensive exam that asks the question: “What character strengths have Americans exhibited during their experiences on the frontier?” Students are required to use specific historical and literary examples to illustrate the characteristics they identify.

II. Fiction

1. We assign students specific chapters from The Martian Chronicles and require them to answer questions pertaining to each reading assignment (see Handout 1) (7).
2. Bradbury implicitly compares the interactions between native inhabitants of Mars and Earthlings with the interactions between Native Americans and European settlers. This literary device enriches students’ understanding of the historical frontier. After students had read “February 2002: The Locusts,” we assign the poem “Crows in a Winter Composition,” by N. Scott Momaday (Handout 2) and lead a class discussion on their similarities.
   The poem, with its ominous birds gathering in a bleak setting, is a metaphor for the way Native Americans viewed the European settlers of the West. Bradbury echoes this dread in “February 2002: The Locusts,” where Martians observe the rockets “swarming and settling,” bringing 90,000 people to Mars. Bradbury’s and Momaday’s poetic imagery brings the visceral dimension of the frontier experience to students as they work to understand its complex history.
3. After students complete the final reading assignment, “2004-05: The Naming of Names,” we discuss the importance of living in harmony with nature, evident in both Indian and Martian cultures. Students compare the Native American “Song of the Sky Loom” (Handout 2) to “The Naming of Names” and consider the obvious parallels between the Indians’ “Mother Earth” and “Father Sky” and the “old Martian [place] names...of water and air and hills.” The Martian Chronicles powerfully evokes the technological and cultural clashes on the American frontier when the Earth men with their rockets strike “at the names like hammers” and rename them “Aluminum City,” “Electric Village,” and “Detroit II” (102-03).

Assessment

Student presentations (fifteen to twenty minutes) incorporate both historical and Chronicles materials and take many forms, such as dramatizations, mock news or talk shows (live or on video), panel discussions, and multimedia shows. One particularly successful presentation came from students using the historical and literary information to create a composite cast of characters who then dramatized key events and issues in our study of the frontier.

In these activities, students identify and analyze the geographic and historical frontiers of the United States, along with the traits of the Americans already in residence and those who arrived to settle. The combination of historical data and science fiction provides multiple means for the student “pathfinders” to construct their understanding of the frontier in the American experience. Higher levels of thinking develop as students synthesize, analyze, apply, and judge information from diverse sources (8).

Our assessments of their learning are both formative (homework checks, quizzes, discussion participation, self and peer assessments) and summative (reflective essays, multiple choice tests, performances). Students are evaluated in two ways: individually, through preparation and participation, and collectively, through group presentation. To reinforce its importance in the history lesson, we make their comprehension of The Martian Chronicles part of their overall evaluation.

Endnotes

1. All citations from the novel are taken from Ray Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles (New York: Bantam Books, 1979).

2. See G. K. Woolfe, “The Frontier Myth in Ray Bradbury,” in Writers of the 21st Century, ed. J. Olander and M. Greenberg (New York: Taplinger Publishing, 1980), 33-54.

3. See S. Willis, “Refocusing the Curriculum: Making Interdisciplinary Efforts Work,” Educational Update 37, no. 1 (1995): 1-8.

4. In August 1998, in Boulder, Colorado, 750 people attended the founding convention of an organization called the “Mars Society,” which is discussing a privately funded venture that would send the first humans to Mars.

5. See H. G. Petrie, “Do You See What I See? The Epistemology of Interdisciplinary Inquiry,” Aesthetic Education 10, no. 1 (1976): 29-43.

6. These unit objectives are in alignment with national standards for a United States history course.

7. I use The Martian Chronicles as a companion piece in the “space frontier,” which immediately follows the westward expansion groups, but the book could be used to illustrate the American experience on any frontier. A particular knowledge and/or interest in science fiction is not a critical factor when using this book to bring the theme of the frontier to students.

8. See S. Schnitzer, “Designing Authentic Assessment,” Educational Leadership 50, no. 7 (1993): 32-35.

Bibliography

Danzer, Gerald D., et al. The Americans. Evanston, Ill.: McDougal, Littell, 1998.

Nash, G. B. and Dunn, R. E. The National History Standards Controversy. Los Angeles: University of California, 1995 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED383607).

Internet Resources

The Library of Congress Multimedia Historical Collections: <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/amhome.html>. This site offers digitized prints, photos, and films with interpretive text including treaties, railroad maps, gold rush narratives, and historical photographs of the West.

The National Archives Teaching Resources: <http://www.nara.gov/education/>. NARA’s Teaching Resources page provides reproducible copies of primary documents from the archives (such as Alaskan gold rush artifacts), teaching activities (such as exercises for analysis of documents), and cross-curricular connections.

Ken Burns/PBS Lewis and Clark Resource: <http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark>. A wealth of information is available from this site, including the expedition timeline, an extensive bibliography, links to archives, and classroom ideas.

The Mars Pathfinder Mission: <http://mpfwww.jpl.nasa.gov>. At this site, visitors can access information about the exploration of Mars, along with especially good photos.

Deborah Wielgot Schmalholz, of School District U-46 in Elgin, Illinois, is a member of the Elgin High School English and American Studies Faculty. She is also the district's professional growth coordinator.

Handout 1
The Martian Chronicles:
Selected Chapters and Study Guide Questions

Write the answers to the following questions as a record of and reflection on your reading.

“August 1999: The Earth Men” [14 pages]

1. What did Captain Williams and his men expect as a welcome to Mars? What did they get? Why?
2. Describe the physical appearance of the Martians and their personality traits.
3. What surprised you most about these beings? What surprised you least?
4. The Earth men are given directions to a place; what is it and why are they sent there?
5. How do they attempt to prove who they are? Are they successful? Why?

“March 2000: The Taxpayer” [1 page]

1. Why does Mr. Pritchard desperately try to board the rocket to Mars?
2. Is this similar to or different from the reasons Americans settled (or resettled) other frontiers? Explain

“August 2001: The Settlers” [1 page]

1. What are the settlers’ reasons for leaving Earth?
2. Which reasons are similar to those of settlers on the American frontier(s)? Which are different? Explain.
3. Explain “The Loneliness.”

“December 2001: Green Morning” [6 pages]

1. What is Driscoll’s plan and his purpose for it?
2. What is so amazing about his efforts?

“February 2002: The Locusts” [1 page]

1. Explain the comparison of rockets to locusts. Why is this a powerful comparison?
2. What other comparisons does Bradbury make in this chapter? What effects do they create?

“October 2002: The Shore” [1 page]

1. Explain the comparison of the first wave of settlers on Mars to those who settled the American West.
2. What physical and character traits are important in both locations?
3. Who comprises the second wave of settlers? Why do they come? Why are they exclusively American?

“2004-05: The Naming of Names” [2 pages]

1. What are Martian city and place names? What are the Earthling names for towns and settlements?
2. What does this indicate about what is important to each “race”?
3. What happens when the “sophisticates” get to Mars? Does Bradbury lead us to believe their arrival is good or bad? Explain your choice.

Handout 2
Selected Native American Poetry

The North American Indians in general did not write down their poetry. Often it was chanted or sung and accompanied by dance. The following is an example of a Native American poem preserved in the traditional oral manner. It is from the Tewa Nation and was translated by Herbert Spinden.

“Song of the Sky Loom”

O our Mother the Earth our Father the Sky
Your children are we
with tired backs we bring you the gifts you love

So weave for us a garment of brightness

May the warp be the white light of morning
May the weft be the red light of evening
May the fringes be the falling rain
May the border be the standing rainbow

Weave for us this bright garment
that we may walk where birds sing
where grass is green

O our Mother the Earth O our Father the Sky

warp: to arrange yarn or threads so that they run lengthwise in weaving
weft: the horizontal threads laced through a woven fabric

The following sample of the work of N. Scott Momaday is an example of a modern form of Native American poetry.

“Crows in a Winter Composition” (1976)

This morning the snow,
The soft distances
Beyond the trees
In which nothing appeared—
Nothing appeared—
The several silences,
Imposed one upon another,
Were unintelligible.

I was therefore ill at ease
When the crows came down,
Whirling down and calling,
Into the yard below
And stood in a mindless manner
On the gray, luminous crust,
Altogether definite, composed,
In the bright enmity of my regard,
In the hard nature of crows.

N. Scott Momaday, In the Presence of the Sun: Stories and Poems, 1961-1991 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992), 33.